The Major Groups of Living Things

List the major groups (kingdoms) of living organisms and write a distinctive characteristic for each that allows it to be recognised.

Classify each of these organisms into its major group (monerans, protoctists, fungi, plants or animals) and justify your choice: an amoeba, a mushroom, an oak, a cyanobacterium and a sponge.

What is a protoctist (protist)? Explain why it is said to be a "catch-all" group, what its members have in common, and give two examples that show its enormous diversity (a unicellular alga and a protozoan).

Distinguish between a unicellular and a multicellular organism with two examples of each, and explain what advantage the division of labor between the specialised cells of a multicellular organism brings.

Identify which major group each organism belongs to based on these descriptions, justifying your answer: a) a unicellular organism without a distinct nucleus, with ether-linked membrane lipids, living in thermal springs; b) a multicellular eukaryotic organism with heterotrophic nutrition by absorption; c) a photosynthetic unicellular eukaryotic organism from plankton.

Differentiate bryophytes, pteridophytes, gymnosperms, and angiosperms based on the presence of vascular tissue, seeds, and flowers, and give an example of each group.

Order the appearance of these innovations in the history of plants and explain what independence from the aquatic environment each one provided: conducting vessels, the seed and the flower.

Sponges are the living animals with the simplest organisation. Describe their body plan (no true tissues, choanocytes that filter the water) and discuss what they suggest about how animals could have arisen from colonial protists.

Explain the criterion separating vertebrates from invertebrates, cite the five groups of vertebrates, and give a key evolutionary novelty for each.

Name three major groups of invertebrates (for example cnidarians, annelids, arthropods, molluscs or echinoderms) and one evolutionary innovation that characterises each (radial symmetry, segmentation, jointed exoskeleton...).

Explain what anatomical and physiological adaptations allowed the first vertebrates to transition from aquatic to terrestrial environments, and what problems they had to solve (support, respiration, desiccation, and reproduction).

Order the appearance of these evolutionary novelties of the vertebrates and assign each one to the group in which it arose: jaws, lungs and limbs with digits, the amniotic egg and the feather.

Based on the simplified phylogenetic tree in the diagram: a) state which present-day group shares the most recent common ancestor with animals; b) explain what the node marked with "?" represents and what type of cellular organisation is shared by all groups descending from it; c) explain whether it is correct to claim that bacteria are "less evolved" than animals.

Explain what a synapomorphy (a shared derived character) is using the hair and mammary glands of mammals, and discuss why shared derived characters, and not general similarities, are used to build evolutionary trees.

Distinguish between divergent and convergent evolution using these examples: the human arm and the wing of a bat (homologous organs) versus the wing of a butterfly and the wing of a bird (analogous organs). Explain what each case indicates about relatedness.

A 1st-year Bachillerato student states in class: "Crocodiles and lizards belong to the same class (Reptiles) because they share characters such as keratinized scales and ectothermy, whereas birds are a completely different group because they have feathers and homeothermy. Grouping crocodiles and birds in the same clade contradicts morphology." Based on the principles of phylogenetic systematics:

1. a) Refute the student's statement by explaining why basing classification on keratinized scales or ectothermy creates a paraphyletic group. Distinguish in your answer between plesiomorphies (ancestral characters) and synapomorphies (shared derived characters).
2. b) Draw or sketch a cladogram showing the common ancestor of amniotes, lepidosaurs (lizards), crocodiles, and birds. Place on the corresponding branches at least two synapomorphies exclusive to the clade Archosauria (which encompasses birds and crocodiles).
3. c) Predict what would happen if in a fossil stratum you discovered an organism with an antorbital fenestra in the skull and a muscular gizzard, but covered in scales and without a trace of feathers: where would you place it on your cladogram, and what implication would this have for the traditional definition of a "reptile"?

Explain two traits that distinguish fungi from plants (composition of the cell wall, form of nutrition, reserve substance) and discuss why fungi are more closely related to animals than to plants.

In a sample of Arctic permafrost, a microorganism ("A-24") has been isolated with the following properties: it possesses a 400 nm icosahedral capsid, a double-stranded DNA genome of 1.2 Mb (larger than that of bacteria such as Mycoplasma genitalium), encodes DNA repair enzymes and several aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases, but lacks its own ribosomes, ATP synthases, and membrane potential. It only multiplies upon entering a free-living amoeba.

1. a) Critically assess whether "A-24" should be considered a living organism or a viral particle according to cell theory and traditional metabolic postulates.
2. b) Contrast how the "reduction hypothesis" (degenerate parasitic cells) and the "gene escape hypothesis" would explain the evolutionary origin of "A-24". What specific genomic signatures would you expect to find in "A-24" to support the reduction hypothesis over the escape hypothesis?
3. c) A group of biologists proposes creating a "fourth domain of life" to place these giant viruses alongside Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya. Using the foundations of Carl Woese's molecular phylogeny based on ribosomal RNA (16S/18S), refute the technical viability of this proposal and propose a coherent taxonomic alternative.

In a biological sampling, a sessile, terrestrial multicellular organism provided with cell walls and with heterotrophic nutrition by absorption is collected. Traditional Linnaean classification would place it close to plants due to its morphological appearance. However, laboratory analyses reveal:

1. Presence of N-acetylglucosamine polymer chains in its cell wall.

2. Storage of energy reserves in the form of glycogen and lipids, with a complete absence of starch.

3. In phylogenetic trees based on ribosomal RNA sequences and contractile proteins, this organism forms a monophyletic clade with animals and choanoflagellates (Opisthokonta).

1. a) Justify why the morphological similarities to plants (sessile, presence of a cell wall) are homoplasies (adaptive convergences) and not evolutionary homologies.
2. b) Argue, using the concepts of molecular homology and synapomorphy, why data 1, 2, and 3 demonstrate that this fungus shares a more recent common ancestor with a snail than with a fern.
3. c) A student remarks: "If fungi used to be plants and now they say they are related to animals, biological classifications are mere arbitrary inventions." Refute their comment by reasoning out the methodological difference between a phenomenological classification and a phylogenetic systematics based on testable hypotheses.

When analyzing the fossil record of continental deposits before and after the biological crisis at the Permian-Triassic boundary (~252 Ma), it is observed that therapsids (synapsids known as "mammal-like reptiles"), which dominated more than 70 % of the herbivore and carnivore faunal communities, suffered a mass extinction exceeding 85 % of their families. During the Triassic, basal archosaurs—previously scarce and marginal—underwent rapid diversification, occupying the vast majority of terrestrial ecological niches.

1. a) Interpret this faunal turnover by applying the concepts of ecological bottleneck, niche vacancy, and adaptive radiation. Was the diversification of archosaurs a consequence of a prior "competitive biological superiority" or of historical contingency?
2. b) Apply the same reasoning to the Cretaceous-Paleogene (K-Pg) boundary extinction event: justify whether the ecological rise of placental mammals following the meteorite impact supports the idea of cumulative evolutionary progress or that of contingency.
3. c) In the face of the current biodiversity loss crisis caused by human action, a report states: "The species that are dominant today (humans, poultry, rodents) guarantee the stability of future ecosystems because their abundance demonstrates their adaptive success." Critically assess this statement based on the survival patterns observed in the major extinctions of the fossil record.

Amphibians are the most threatened group of vertebrates on the planet, including in the Dominican Republic. Analyze what traits of their biology make them especially vulnerable and propose two justified conservation measures.

In an experimental plot of a deciduous forest, a broad-spectrum systemic fungicide was applied to the soil for three years, keeping solar radiation, rainfall, and atmospheric CO₂ concentration unchanged. After that period, three empirical observations were recorded:

1. The thickness of the undecomposed leaf litter layer increased by 180%.

2. Oak seedlings (Quercus robur) experienced a 45% reduction in their growth and a marked foliar deficiency of phosphorus and nitrogen.

3. The soil respiration rate dropped drastically.

1. a) Justify observations 1 and 3 based on the metabolic strategy and the mode of external digestion characteristic of saprophytic fungi compared to plant autotrophic nutrition.
2. b) Explain the biological mechanism underlying observation 2: which specific symbiotic interaction has been destroyed in the soil, and what net nutrient flow between fungus and plant has been interrupted?
3. c) Predict, with reasoning, how the continued absence of fungi will affect the forest's net primary productivity and the biogeochemical carbon cycle in the medium term.

In a Cretaceous site, a fossil skeleton assigned to a non-avian theropod (Dromaeosauridae) is excavated. The fossil exhibits:

• Asymmetrical contour feathers on the forelimbs.

• An ossified V-shaped furcula and an incipient keeled sternum.

• Appendicular skeleton with hollow pneumatic bones.

• Serrated teeth in the jaws and a long, articulated bony tail.

1. a) Interpret these characters in light of the concept of exaptation (functional co-optation): demonstrate why structures associated with modern flight (feathers and pneumatic skeletons) did not initially evolve 'to' fly, but under different selective pressures in terrestrial dinosaurs.
2. b) A science outreach outlet publishes the headline: "A new fossil helps understand how dinosaurs went extinct and gave rise to birds." Identify the cladistic conceptual error in the headline and write a taxonomically rigorous phrasing based on the concept of a monophyletic group.
3. c) Explain what taxonomic consequences it would have for the class "Reptilia" to keep birds in a separate class: what type of group would Dinosauria turn out to be if we expressly excluded the lineage of living birds?

Your city's environmental department wants to assess the ecological health of a peri-urban park subjected to two different regimes: Zone A (continuous lawn mowing, leaf litter removal, and herbicide use) and Zone B (rewilded, without systematic clearing or plant protection products).

1. a) Design a standardized sampling protocol to quantify and compare the diversity of two key taxonomic groups: soil arthropods and soil fungi. For each group, indicate: the field capture or collection method, sampling effort (number of replicates or area), and a specific quantitative biological variable that you would measure in the laboratory.
2. b) When analyzing the water of a park pond using visual sampling and conventional plankton nets, no presence of amphibians or threatened benthic macroinvertebrates is detected. Design an analytical strategy based on environmental DNA (eDNA) and metabarcoding to verify whether these species frequent or inhabit the water body, pointing out which common genetic target is used for taxonomic identification and two critical advantages of this technique compared to traditional survey methods.
3. c) Predict what quantitative and structural differences you would expect to find between the food web of Zone A and that of Zone B after two years of differentiated management, justifying how the management regime will impact the decomposition rate of organic matter and the ecosystem's resilience capacity.