Viruses, viroids and prions

Give three reasons why viruses are not considered living organisms according to classical criteria (cellular organization, metabolism, and reproduction) and one reason why the debate remains open.

Describe the basic structure of a virus (genome, capsid, and, in some, envelope) and explain the difference between a naked virus and an enveloped virus, with an example of each.

Distinguish between viruses with a DNA genome and those with an RNA genome, and give an example of a disease caused by each type (herpes or smallpox versus flu, measles or COVID-19), indicating what this implies for their variability.

Look at the structure of the virus in the image. a) Explain the function of structures 1, 2, and 4 during cell infection. b) Reason why structure 3 makes this type of virus particularly sensitive to soap and alcohol-based solutions. c) Is it possible to know from the image alone whether its genome is DNA or RNA? Justify your answer.

Explain what the host specificity of a virus is (why does the tobacco mosaic virus not infect us?) and which barriers a virus must jump to infect a different species (receptors, cellular machinery).

In a laboratory, two emerging viruses that infect human lymphocytes are analyzed: virus Alpha (with a double-stranded DNA genome of $150\text{ kb}$) and virus Beta (with a single-stranded RNA genome of $15\text{ kb}$). Viral particles are isolated from patients after six months of infection:

• In Alpha, the sequence of the attachment glycoprotein gene shows an average divergence of $0.001\,\%$ relative to the inoculated strain.

• In Beta, the divergence in the homologous protein is $4.2\,\%$, with a broad cloud of variants found within a single host.

1. a) Justify at the molecular and enzymatic level the cause of this huge disparity in the mutation rates observed between both viruses.
2. b) To combat both pathogens, a protein subunit vaccine based on a single variant of the attachment protein and an inhibitory drug targeting that protein are tested. Make a reasoned prediction of the medium-term effectiveness prognosis of these strategies in Alpha and in Beta.
3. c) What viral target or pharmacological strategy would you propose for virus Beta in order to reduce the likelihood of it developing resistant variants?

Explain what a bacteriophage is, describe its structure (a head with the genome, a tail and attachment fibers) and indicate what its "prey" is and why each phage infects only certain bacteria.

Describe the lytic cycle and the lysogenic cycle of a bacteriophage, indicating how they differ and what consequence it has for the bacterium when the phage enters latency.

Order and describe the phases of the replication cycle of a virus (attachment, penetration, replication and synthesis, assembly, release), and indicate at which steps antiviral drugs can act (blocking entry, inhibiting the polymerase or the protease).

What are viroids and what are prions? State which organisms the former infect and give a human or animal disease caused by prions.

A research team is trying to determine the nature of the infectious agent causing a new spongiform encephalopathy. To do so, they subject samples of infectious brain tissue to different treatments before inoculating them into healthy lab mice:

• Treatment 1: Exhaustive digestion with DNases and RNases $\rightarrow$ $100\,\%$ of the mice fall ill.

• Treatment 2: Ultraviolet irradiation at lethal doses for nucleic acids $\rightarrow$ $100\,\%$ of the mice fall ill.

• Treatment 3: Autoclaving at $121\text{ }^\circ\text{C}$ for $20\text{ minutes}$ $\rightarrow$ $100\,\%$ of the mice fall ill.

• Treatment 4: Prolonged boiling in sodium hydroxide ($1\text{ M}$) or digestion with harsh proteases $\rightarrow$ No mice fall ill.

• Treatment 5: The intact infectious sample is inoculated into Knock-Out mice in which the $PRNP$ gene has been deleted (they do not express the normal cellular protein $\text{PrP}^\text{C}$) $\rightarrow$ No mice develop the disease or multiply the pathogen.

1. a) Interpret the results of treatments 1, 2, and 4: deduce the biochemical nature of the pathogen and justify why its discovery represented an apparent violation of the central dogma of molecular biology.
2. b) Explain at a structural level (secondary conformation and aggregation) why treatment 3 failed but treatment 4 managed to neutralize infectivity.
3. c) Deduce from treatment 5 the mechanism by which this pathogen manages to "replicate" in a healthy host and explain why mice without the $PRNP$ gene turn out to be immune.

The 'One Health' approach views human, animal, and environmental health as a single interconnected system. Explain this using viral zoonoses: give two examples (rabies, avian influenza, or COVID-19) and reason how deforestation, intensive livestock farming, and the wildlife trade facilitate a virus jumping from an animal species to humans.

In a tropical rainforest region, $60,000\text{ hectares}$ of primary forest are cleared to establish monocultures and intensive pig farms. Two years later, an outbreak of acute respiratory syndrome and encephalitis is recorded among farm workers, caused by a novel RNA virus related to bat pathogens.

1. a) Formulate an ecological hypothesis describing the transmission chain of the zoonotic spillover, explaining the role of ecosystem disturbance, the bat as a wild reservoir, and pigs as an amplifying host.
2. b) Biological sampling reveals that in the degraded forest fragments, bat species richness has decreased by $65\,\%$, but the density of an opportunistic reservoir species for the virus has tripled. Relate this pattern to the ecological concept of the "dilution effect" and argue why the loss of biodiversity increases the risk of zoonoses.
3. c) From the multidisciplinary One Health approach, design two preventive measures applicable to the environment or livestock management to prevent future viral emergence events in the area.

The human papillomavirus (HPV) can cause cervical cancer and other tumors. Explain how a virus can favor cancer (its proteins altering the control of the cell cycle), why it takes years to appear, and why vaccinating teenagers — boys and girls — is a vaccine against cancer.

HIV infects CD4 T lymphocytes. Explain why the destruction of these cells disorganizes the whole immune system, what AIDS is (the final phase without treatment) and why antiretrovirals turn the infection into a controlled chronic disease but do not cure it (reservoirs of latent virus).

Name three transmission routes of viruses (respiratory, fecal-oral, sexual or blood-borne, via vectors such as mosquitoes) with an example of a disease for each one, and indicate one specific prevention measure for each route.

Flu changes in two ways. Distinguish antigenic drift (annual point mutations) from antigenic shift (recombination between viruses, the origin of pandemics), and discuss why avian and swine flu are monitored as possible sources of new pandemic viruses.

Unit challenge. Imagine you are advising the Department of Health and the Department of Agriculture. Your mission is to evaluate the threat of acellular forms in your environment and design a technical biosecurity guide.

1. Real data collection: Access publications from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) or the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA). Record the recent incidence or prevalence of a viral infection (for example, influenza with a rate of $18.4$ cases per $100,000$ inhabitants), a plant viroid (such as tomato apical stunt viroid), and a livestock prion disease.

2. Comparative analysis: Prepare a data table comparing the three agents according to their composition ($ARN$, $ADN$ or the $PrP^{Sc}$ protein isoform), presence or absence of capsid/envelope, and approximate size in nanometers ($nm$).

3. Reasoned report: Write an action proposal ($1$ page) explaining which physical or chemical treatments (autoclave, UV radiation, bleach) are effective against each, justifying why the resistance of a prion or a viroid differs drastically from that of a virus with a lipid envelope.

Assessment criteria:

• Conceptual rigor when differentiating the molecular structure and pathogenesis of viruses, viroids, and prions.

• Accurate collection and appropriate citation of epidemiological data from official sources.

• Scientific consistency in the physicochemical justification of the proposed disinfection methods.

What is a vaccine and how does it "train" the immune system without causing the disease? Name two types of vaccines (attenuated, inactivated, subunit, messenger RNA) and explain how they differ.

Messenger RNA vaccines were rolled out on a massive scale during COVID-19. Explain how they work (a temporary instruction for our cells to manufacture the antigen), what design-speed advantage they offer, and why it is false that they can modify our DNA (where does the mRNA act and what is its half-life?).