Exercises: Pregnancy and childbirth

Put the following stages in order from when the egg cell is fertilised until the baby is born, and write a brief sentence about what happens in each one: foetus, fertilisation, childbirth, zygote, embryo.

Look at the image of the foetus inside the uterus. Locate the uterus, the placenta, the umbilical cord and the amniotic fluid, and explain the function of each of these structures in protecting and nourishing the foetus.

Describe what happens during childbirth: which organ contracts to push the baby out, what path it follows to emerge, and what happens to the umbilical cord after birth.

Explain the difference between embryo and foetus, state at what point in pregnancy the transition from one stage to the other occurs, and mention an important developmental change in each of the three trimesters of gestation.

Childbirth does not happen all at once: three stages are distinguished: the dilation stage of the cervix, the expulsion stage of the baby, and a final stage called the afterbirth (delivery of the placenta). Explain what happens in each of the three stages and what is expelled in the last one.

During pregnancy, the foetus develops inside the uterus attached to the placenta by the umbilical cord. Explain what functions the placenta performs for the foetus and reason why substances consumed by the mother (alcohol, tobacco, certain medications) can affect the baby's development.

A patient planning to become pregnant remarks: "Until I miss my period and take a test that comes back positive, I won't stop drinking alcohol on weekends or stop taking my usual medication, because before a missed period there is no embryo that can be harmed."

1. a) Scientifically refute this statement: place on a calendar what happens between fertilization (around day 14 of the cycle) and the first missed period (around day 28), and explain at what point the embryo begins exchanging substances through maternal tissues.
2. b) Justify why harmful substances cause irreparable structural malformations during the embryonic period (weeks 3 to 8 of development), whereas exposure occurring in the last trimester usually leads to low birth weight or delayed maturation, but rarely the absence or malformation of an entire organ.

A hospital analyzes three cases of twin births (birth of two babies in the same delivery):

• Case 1: A boy and a girl with different blood types.

• Case 2: Two girls who share 100% of their DNA.

• Case 3: Two boys who physically look very similar, but genetic testing shows they only share 50% of their genes, just like two siblings born in different years.

1. a) Classify each case as identical twins (monozygotic) or fraternal twins (dizygotic), precisely deducing what occurred during fertilization in each one (number of fertilized eggs, number of sperm, and behavior of the zygote).
2. b) Someone claims: "In Case 1, the boy and the girl must have originated from a single egg that was fertilized simultaneously by two sperm: one with an X chromosome and another with a Y chromosome." Demonstrate why this statement is biologically erroneous and explain how sex was actually determined in that pair of babies.

In a hospital's neonatal unit, two babies are being cared for:

• Case A: A fetus spontaneously expelled at 16 weeks of gestation. It measures about 12 cm and already has a formed heart, kidneys, limbs, and lungs, but is non-viable outside the womb.

• Case B: A baby born at 31 weeks (premature birth) weighing 1.6 kg. It has all its organs, but needs to remain in an incubator for several weeks with constant warmth and assisted breathing to survive.

1. a) Refute the statement of anyone claiming that "since all organs are already formed by week 16, the fetus in Case A should be able to survive on a mechanical ventilator just like the one in Case B." Accurately distinguish between organogenesis (organ formation) and functional maturation.
2. b) Explain which two vital functions were undertaken by the placenta or the mother's body during pregnancy that the baby in Case B is still unable to perform on its own, requiring it to be kept in an incubator.